A large area of land in Western New York that was part of a land purchase known as the Holland Purchase. It was jointly owned by the State of Connecticut and the Pulteney Estate, and its lands were surveyed and sold to settlers over time.

A secondary school offering advanced education beyond the elementary level. In the 19th century, academies were often private institutions providing instruction

in a range of subjects, including classical languages, sciences, and the arts.

A person who helps commit a crime but is not present during the crime.

An illness that early settlers often experienced when they moved to new regions with different climates or environments. It often included symptoms similar to malaria or other fever-inducing diseases and was a significant cause of early deaths among settlers.

Refers to individuals who settled on and developed land, as opposed to speculators who bought land with the intention of selling it later for a profit without making improvements.

A law passed by the legislative body of a government.

This refers to the process by which a lawyer is officially allowed to practice law before the courts. Being admitted to the bar means they completed the necessary legal education and passed the required examinations to become a licensed attorney.

A custom in some Native American tribes where a captured person could be adopted into the tribe, often to replace a deceased family member.

A fever, often with alternating chills and sweating, commonly associated with malaria. In the early settlement period, “fever and ague” was a common affliction for pioneers, especially when they first arrived in a new area.

A military officer acting as a confidential assistant to a senior officer. The Aide-de-Camp helps with

administrative tasks, communication, and other duties as assigned by the commanding officer.

A group of Native American tribes originally from the northeastern part of North America, particularly in the region of what is now Canada. They were allies of the French during the conflicts with the Iroquois.

A range of the Appalachian Mountains running through the eastern United States, often referenced in historical accounts of early American expansion westward.

A term used to describe the conventional medical practice of treating symptoms with remedies that produce effects opposite to those caused by the disease. In the early 19th century, this was the dominant form of medical treatment, characterized by the use of strong medicines like quinine and blue pill.

A British general who led military campaigns during the French and Indian War. He played a key role in the British conquest of Canada, including the defeat of French forces and the acquisition of their territories.

The front part of the brain’s cerebral hemisphere. In this context, it refers to the skulls found at the site, noting that the anterior lobe was well-developed, indicating intelligence or a certain level of mental capacity.

Refers to a period in the early 19th century when there was widespread suspicion and opposition to Freemasonry, particularly after the abduction and presumed murder of William Morgan in 1826, who had threatened to expose Masonic secrets. This event led to the formation of the Anti-Masonic Party and widespread anti-Masonic sentiment in the United States.

The ancient past, especially the period before the Middle Ages. Here, it is used to describe the growing historical interest and reverence for the pioneer era.

The system under which Samuel Tappan learned the shoemaking trade, a common practice in the 18th and 19th centuries where young people learned a trade by working for a master.

An old term for nitric acid, which was commonly used in early chemical processes, including metalworking.

Describes someone with a passionate and enthusiastic personality. They would have intense feelings and strong opinions, especially on topics like slavery and temperance.

Sharpened points, usually made of stone, attached to arrows and used as weapons or hunting tools by Indigenous peoples.

A toxic substance that was historically used in small doses as a treatment for various illnesses, such as fever and ague. Its use was dangerous, and it was often administered with caution by early doctors.

A written contract provided by the Holland Land Company to settlers, specifying the terms of land purchase, including payment schedules and conditions. The “Article” allowed settlers to take possession of the land while paying off the purchase price over time.

A facility where wood ashes were processed to produce potash or perlash, which were valuable commodities in the early 19th century. Asheries were common in areas where land clearing created large amounts of wood ash. Potash was an important commodity for trade, especially in rural and frontier areas.

A reference to the Westminster Assembly’s Shorter Catechism, a set of religious doctrines used by Presbyterian and Congregational churches. It was an essential part of the religious education for many early settlers.

Refers to the New York State Assembly, the lower house of the New York State Legislature.

Representatives (Assembly members) are elected from various districts, including Orleans County, to serve in the Assembly and participate in making state laws.

A person appointed to handle the assets of a bankrupt individual or entity.

The process by which a settler could transfer their interest in a land purchase contract (Article) to another person. This practice was common among settlers, tradesmen, and speculators.

A structure built to carry water over obstacles, such as rivers or valleys. In the context of the Erie Canal, aqueducts were used to carry the canal over streams and rivers.

A Scottish phrase meaning old long since or days gone by, often used to express nostalgia for the past. The term is famously associated with the song of the same name, traditionally sung at New Year’s Eve.

A term used to describe the living arrangement of unmarried men sharing a cabin or house, often in pioneer settings.

A large log placed at the back of a fireplace, often used as the primary source of fuel in a log house. It would burn slowly, providing heat and light for several days.

A heavy iron pan with a moveable lid and legs, used for baking before stoves became common. The pan could be placed over coals, with additional coals placed on top of the lid to cook the contents evenly.

A Christian denomination characterized by the practice of baptism by full immersion. In early Orleans County, Baptists were among the first to establish formal religious organizations.

A roof made from strips of bark, typically from basswood or other trees, used in the construction of early log cabins

A town in Orleans County, New York, named after Barre, Massachusetts, by Judge John Lee. The town was officially separated from Gaines in 1818.

The flat top surface of a barrel, which early settlers sometimes used as a makeshift table. This was a practical solution in the absence of more formal furniture.

A basin in the context of a canal is an artificial body of water created by digging out the bank, allowing boats to turn around or dock. It serves as a small harbor within a canal.

A type of tree, also known as linden, commonly found in the forests of New York. The wood was often used by early settlers for building floors, furniture, and other wooden items due to its soft and workable wood.

A city in Western New York that served as the administrative center for the Holland Land Company. The company’s main land office was located here, managing land sales and other business activities related to the Holland Purchase.

A key battle in the War of 1812, fought near present- day Buffalo, New York.

Social gatherings where neighbors came together to help each other with large tasks, such as building barns, houses, or other communal projects where everyone contributes labor without expectation of payment. These were common in frontier and rural communities where labor-intensive tasks needed to be completed quickly.

Those who give aid, particularly in the form of money or resources. The term here refers to the pioneers who established the foundations for future generations.

A significant religious text for Christians. In the context of the time, it was common for families to pass down a family Bible, which often contained records of births, marriages, and deaths.

A type of wetland habitat commonly found in New York State, particularly in low-lying areas. The term here refers to a specific swamp area in what later became Rochester, noted for its difficult terrain.

A small, black ceramic teapot commonly used by early settlers. These teapots were highly valued for making tea, whether from store-bought tea leaves or herbs collected from the wild.

A term referring to a remote and wild area that was sparsely settled, often associated with difficult living conditions such as harsh weather, thick forests, and the prevalence of diseases like fever and ague.

A crude form of potash, produced by leaching ashes from burned wood. Black salts were an important product for early settlers, as they could be further refined into potash or used in trade. It was often sold to asheries for further refinement.

A craftsman who works with iron and steel, forging and shaping metal objects, such as tools, horseshoes, and other items. They were essential in early American towns for maintaining tools and equipment.

A small, fortified structure used during the American Revolutionary War to provide protection against attacks.

Simple, rough-cut sections of logs used as makeshift stools or seats in early log houses. These were often used in place of chairs.

Crockery with a distinctive blue rim, often found in households of the 18th and 19th centuries. These plates were part of the minimal tableware owned by many early settlers.

A type of pill containing mercury, used in the 19th century to treat various ailments, including syphilis and digestive issues. It was a common medication among early settlers but is now recognized as toxic.

Refers to the solid, central part of a maple tree.

A financial agreement where the land buyer received the deed to the land but provided a bond (a promise to pay) and a mortgage (a lien on the property) to secure the remaining balance owed to the Holland Land Company.

A large, controlled outdoor fire used for warmth, light, or celebration.

The process of settling land on the frontier, often at the edges of established territories or in newly acquired regions.

Branches of a tree, often used as feed for livestock when other fodder was scarce. Early settlers would cut down trees to provide boughs for their cattle during harsh winters.

In this context, booked refers to the practice of informally claiming land by having it noted in an agent’s records before it was officially put on the market. This was a way for settlers to secure their rights to the land before purchasing it.

Bread made from the outer layers of grain, known as bran, which was often less desirable but used when resources were scarce.

A Mohawk military and political leader who was closely associated with the British during the American Revolutionary War. He was instrumental in persuading many of the Iroquois nations to side with the British against the American colonists.

A situation where one’s income or revenue is equal to their expenses, meaning they are not gaining or losing money. It implies that an individual was not able to save money despite his efforts.

A brewery is a facility where beer is produced, while a distillery is where spirits like whiskey are made. Both were common in early American towns, providing local beverages and often serving as social hubs.

An oven made of brick, often used for baking, that marked a significant improvement in the domestic facilities of early settlers. The term “Scotch oven” refers to outdoor brick ovens raised on a frame, commonly used before the widespread introduction of kitchen ovens inside the house.

A rank in the military hierarchy, typically commanding a brigade or being responsible for a specific task or operation. A Brigadier General is a senior rank, usually the first rank of General Officer in the U.S. military.

Military officers who assist a Brigadier General in managing the various functions of a brigade, including logistics, administration, and medical services.

A strong solution of salt in water. Brine springs were natural sources of salty water used to produce salt, an important preservative and seasoning in the 19th century.

A method of sowing seeds by scattering them widely over the surface of the soil rather than planting them in rows. This was a common technique for planting wheat in the early days of settlement.

An Ivy League research university located in Providence, Rhode Island. Founded in 1764, it is one of the oldest institutions of higher education in the United States.

Refers to the twigs, leaves, and shoots of trees and shrubs that are eaten by livestock, particularly during the winter months when other forage is scarce. It indicates a time of scarcity when livestock had to be fed on less nutritious or less conventional fodder.

A light, horse-drawn carriage with four wheels, commonly used for personal transportation in the 19th century. Buggies became popular as roads improved and transportation needs grew.

A significant early battle in the American Revolutionary War, fought on June 17, 1775, in Charlestown, Massachusetts. John Anderson, the ancestor of the Anderson family in Gaines, fought in this battle.

An old-fashioned term for a cemetery or burial site. It was common for early American settlements to have a designated area for burying the dead.

A temporary shelter constructed using branches and foliage.

A key agent for the Holland Land Company, who managed many of its affairs from Philadelphia. He was involved in decisions regarding land donations to religious societies and other important matters related to the company’s operations.

A British Loyalist who led a group of irregular fighters known as Butler’s Rangers during the American Revolutionary War. He was known for his role in leading raids against American frontier settlements.

A type of inexpensive, printed cotton fabric that was widely used for clothing and household items in the 19th century.

Refers to the military actions that took place along the Niagara River during the War of 1812 between the United States and Britain. Many settlers in Western New York volunteered to defend the region.

Refers to the region of Canada that is now Ontario.

A position responsible for assessing and valuing properties and lands impacted by the construction of the Erie Canal. This role was crucial in the development and expansion of the canal system in New York.

A village located along a canal, which often grew due to the commerce and transportation the canal provided.

A group of people, especially traders or settlers, traveling together across a region, often for safety. In this context, it refers to groups of emigrants moving westward.

To form a material, such as metal, into a specific shape by pouring it into a mold and allowing it to harden.

This process was used to create tools, parts, and other items.

Local regulations that governed the grazing and movement of cattle. In early settlements, such laws were important for preventing livestock from straying and damaging crops.

Large iron pots used for boiling substances, in this case, brine to make salt. These kettles were essential for the salt production industry.

Raised roads or paths, often constructed over wet or low-lying ground. In early settlements, causeways were important for making roads passable in areas prone to flooding or marshy conditions.

An organized group responsible for managing and maintaining a cemetery. Many of the old rural burial places in Orleans County were placed under the care of Cemetery Associations, which were incorporated under general law.

A specific parcel of land within a cemetery where an individual or family can be buried. Cemetery lots in places like Hillside Cemetery are carefully numbered and mapped, with ownership transferred through deeds.

A canal in New York State that connects the southern end of Lake Champlain to the Hudson River. It was constructed concurrently with the Erie Canal and allowed boats to travel between Lake Champlain and Albany.

Personal property or belongings. In this text, it refers to the few possessions, like an ax, that a pioneer might own.

The flat top of a storage chest, which could be used as a makeshift table by early settlers. Chests were multifunctional, providing storage and serving as furniture.

The process of filling gaps between the logs in a log house with materials such as clay, splints, or moss to insulate the structure and keep out wind and rain.

A person who leads the singing in a church or congregation, often responsible for selecting hymns and setting the pitch.

A person who has extensively studied the languages, literature, and culture of ancient Greece and Rome. Reuben Bryant, being described as a classical scholar, indicates his deep knowledge of Greek and Latin, which he enjoyed discussing and quoting.

The process of removing trees and underbrush from land to prepare it for cultivation. The term also refers to the area of land that has been cleared of trees.

Clever refers to being skillful or ingenious in one’s actions. One might rely on wit and natural ability to navigate challenges rather than formal education.

A person or business that makes, sells, or deals in clothes. In the 19th century, this often involved the processing of wool and other fabrics, as well as the tailoring of garments.

A reference to the “Year Without a Summer” in 1816, when volcanic activity led to severe climate anomalies, including frost and snow in summer

months which devastated crops, leading to widespread food shortages. This event significantly impacted early settlers and delayed settlement in many areas.

An official responsible for collecting tolls and other revenues from canal users.

An official responsible for collecting taxes within a designated area.

Refers to the government established by the British in the New York Colony prior to American independence. The colonial government was responsible for managing relations with Native American tribes and defending the colony from external threats.

A role or responsibility typically involving the provision and distribution of food and supplies, especially in a military or pioneer context.

Commissions were formalized orders given by a governing authority or military command.

Officials appointed by the government or a company to oversee specific projects, such as the surveying, laying out, and maintaining of public highways.

A basic education typically provided by local schools in early American settlements. This term reflects the

emphasis on fundamental literacy and numeracy skills, often taught in one-room schoolhouses.

A phrase used to describe having enough material wealth or resources to live comfortably.

A high-ranking official responsible for overseeing financial operations, including audits and financial management of the state.

To reduce something in size, volume, or extent, often while retaining essential elements. In this context, the author has condensed the histories to focus on what would be most interesting to the general reader.

A Protestant Christian denomination where each congregation independently and autonomously runs its own affairs.

Refers to a church organization that is structured as a connection of congregations under one administration, a term often used by Wesleyan and Methodist groups.

A public officer responsible for maintaining order and enforcing the law in a town or township. In early American communities, constables often handled minor legal matters and served as the primary law enforcement officer.

A road made by placing logs transversely side by side to create a stable surface over muddy or swampy ground. These roads were labor-intensive but essential for travel in areas with poor drainage and were common in early American settlements.

Wood cut and stacked for use as firewood, traditionally measured in cords, where a cord is a stack of wood

4 feet high, 4 feet wide, and 8 feet long. Cutting and stacking cordwood was a common task for settlers.

A staple crop planted by early settlers, often among the felled logs of a newly cleared field. In this context, “corn” refers to maize, a key food source for the pioneers.

The stalks of corn plants, used as feed for livestock. In the early days of settlement, cornstalks were one of the few sources of fodder available.

The top part of the skull. The term is used here to describe the shape and structure of the ancient skulls found at the archaeological site.

Refers to the local governing body or the New York State Council of Appointment, which appointed officials like Justices of the Peace before certain positions became elected roles.

A building where legal cases are heard and government functions are carried out. The decision to locate

the courthouse in Albion instead of Gaines had a significant impact on the development and prosperity of the surrounding areas.

A court with jurisdiction over equity cases, which typically involve matters such as trusts, estates, contracts, and guardianships. This court operated separately from courts of law, which dealt more with criminal and civil cases. The New York Court of

Chancery was abolished in 1847, with its duties being absorbed by other courts.

A local court in the 19th century United States that handled civil cases, such as disputes over contracts, land, and other non-criminal matters. Judges in this court often had more practical experience than formal legal training.

A wetland area that was once flooded by beaver dams, later becoming a marsh suitable for cranberry growth after the water receded. These marshes were found in places like the head of Otter Creek in Barre.

A method of purchasing goods where payment is deferred to a later date. This system was common among early settlers, who often bought goods on credit and paid when they were able to sell crops or other products.

The forked or Y-shaped part of a tree, often used as posts or supports in primitive structures, such as sheds or temporary shelters.

The preparation of land for growing crops. In the context of early settlers, cultivation involved clearing land of trees and stumps, followed by planting and tending crops.

A craftsman who finishes leather after it has been tanned, preparing it for use in making goods like shoes, saddles, and belts.

A lightweight, open, horse-drawn sleigh, typically used in winter. It was a common means of transportation in rural areas during the 19th century.

An ordained minister in a Christian church, particularly within Baptist, Congregational, and other Protestant denominations, who assists the pastor with the ministry’s duties and serves the congregation in various capacities.

The formal ceremony marking the opening or consecration of a cemetery or other significant site. For example, Mount Albion Cemetery was dedicated on September 7, 1843.

Legal documents that convey ownership of property from one person to another. As settlers paid off their land, they received deeds from the Holland Land Company, confirming their ownership.

A recognized autonomous branch of the Christian Church. Early settlers in Orleans County came from various denominations, including Baptist, Methodist, and Presbyterian, but initially did not maintain strict denominational distinctions.

A term meaning modest or shy because of a lack of self-confidence. Reuben Bryant being described as diffident in himself suggests that despite his legal knowledge and skills, he was hesitant or lacked confidence in his abilities as an advocate in court.

A method of planting seeds by digging small holes or furrows in the soil, often with a hoe, and placing the seeds inside. This technique was used when plowing was not possible due to tree stumps or other obstacles.

A facility where alcoholic beverages, such as whiskey or rum, are produced by fermenting and distilling grain, fruit, or other materials. Distilling was a common practice in early American settlements, both for personal use and for trade.

A homemade candle made by repeatedly dipping a wick (usually a piece of string) into melted tallow (animal fat) until the desired thickness is achieved. These candles were commonly used for lighting in early log houses.

A religious or moral command believed to be given by God. Asa Sanford refers to the Biblical commandment to “love thy neighbor as thyself,” highlighting the cooperative spirit among early settlers.

A now-archaic term used to refer to a female practitioner of medicine. In the 19th century, this term might have been used to describe a woman who provided medical care, especially in rural or frontier areas where formally trained doctors were scarce.

A type of log cabin construction with two separate sections, typically connected by a central chimney. These were common in early American frontier settlements and served as both homes and, in some cases, a tavern.

A simple agricultural tool used to break up and smooth out the soil after sowing seeds. The triangular harrow or drag was pulled over the field to cover the seeds with soil.

Laborers who transport goods using a dray, a low, strong cart without sides. Draymen played an essential role in early transportation and commerce.

Merchandise such as textiles, clothing, and other products that are not considered groceries or hardware. Dry goods stores were a key part of trade in early American villages.

A type of open fireplace, commonly used in early American homes, particularly those with Dutch influence.

Likely refers to the Conestoga wagon which were heavy, covered wagons used by settlers during the 18th and 19th century to move their families and belongings across long distances.

A term for indigestion or an upset stomach. It was used commonly in the 19th century to describe digestive discomfort.

Pottery made from clay that is fired at a relatively low temperature, often used for making plates, dishes, and other items.

A government order restricting commerce, particularly with foreign nations. In this context, it refers to the

U.S. Embargo Act of 1807, which prohibited American ships from trading with foreign ports, including Great Britain, during the Napoleonic Wars.

A large or imposing building or structure, often referring to a church. The word is also used somewhat humorously to describe the small and simple log houses built by early settlers.

A title used in some Christian denominations, particularly among Baptists, to refer to a church leader or minister. Early Baptist elders like Irons, Dutcher, and Carpenter were instrumental in establishing churches in Orleans County.

The principal surveyor for the Holland Land Company, responsible for surveying the Holland Purchase. He later became the local agent overseeing the company’s business in Western New York.

This likely refers to an embankment, which is a raised structure typically used to support roads, railways, or canals. In the context of the Erie Canal, it would be an artificial bank of earth constructed to contain the canal or its adjacent waterways.

The act of passengers and crew getting aboard a ship.

The process of starting a journey or project.

The act of leaving one’s own country or area to settle in another. In this context, it refers to the movement of people into the northern parts of New York State.

A nickname for the state of New York, reflecting its wealth, resources, and influence, particularly during the 19th century.

The act of gradually taking over or trespassing on someone’s territory or rights. In this context, it refers to the English building a fort in territory claimed by the French, leading to conflict.

To establish or incorporate one thing into another.

In this context, settlers from New England sought to “engraft” their educational and social institutions into their new communities in Western New York.

A junior rank in the military, often the lowest commissioned officer in the militia during this period. It was typically responsible for carrying the colors (flag) of the regiment.

A man-made waterway completed in 1825, linking the Hudson River with Lake Erie. The canal transformed New York State’s economy, shifting the focus of commerce away from areas like Gaines to towns along the canal. It was a significant route for trade and transportation.

A title used in the United States to denote a man of social rank or one holding an office of authority, such as a Justice of the Peace.

A term associated with the teachings and beliefs of evangelical Christianity, emphasizing the importance of the gospel and personal faith in Jesus Christ.

A Latin word meaning ever upward or higher. It is the motto of the state of New York and symbolizes striving for progress and improvement.

To dig up something buried, especially a body. In this text, it refers to the skeletons that were dug up from the ground in various states of preservation.

Refers to the northernmost regions of early European exploration and settlement in North America, particularly in what is now Canada.

Land that has been cleared and left unplanted for a period to restore its fertility. In the early days of

settlement, fallow land often referred to fields that were in the process of being cleared or prepared for future planting.

A local bank established in Gaines, likely to support the agricultural community by providing loans and other financial services.

A canal built to direct water from a larger waterway into another, such as from Tonawanda Creek into Oak Orchard Creek, to help supply water to the Erie Canal.

Trees that have been cut down.

A term used to describe the recurrent malarial-like symptoms of fever, chills, and sweating that afflicted many pioneers. It was a common condition in areas where the land was swampy or newly cleared. It was a significant cause of early deaths among settlers.

See the “Pioneer Handbook” for more detail.

A private school for girls that emphasizes cultural studies and prepares them for society.

The bottom part of the opening for a fireplace or chimney.

A notable intersection in Gaines, about a mile north of Albion. It was a key point for settlers and a location where important decisions and actions took place. The Oak Orchard Road was surveyed from this point to the south, marking one of the first public highways in Barre.

A fir tree planted in the Medina burial grounds by John Parsons in 1860 as a lasting memorial. Under the tree, a glass jar enclosed in lead was buried, containing mementos of the time.

A type of flat stone used for paving sidewalks, floors, or as flagstones. The discovery of flagging stone

in Medina was significant for construction and infrastructure in the area.

A manual tool used to thresh grain, separating the edible part from the chaff. It consists of a long wooden handle attached to a shorter, free-swinging stick.

Threshing machines eventually replaced the flail as a more efficient method.

A type of leather that comes from the flank or side of an animal, typically of lower quality and used for less durable goods, such as the poor coarse shoes mentioned by Jacob A. Zimmerman.

A type of firearm that uses flint striking steel to ignite the gunpowder.

A mill where grain is ground into flour. Flouring mills were central to the agricultural economy, turning locally grown wheat into flour for local use and export.

Food for livestock, particularly during the winter months when fresh grass was not available. Fodder typically included hay, cornstalks, and other plant materials.

A sudden attack or incursion into enemy territory, especially to obtain something; mentioned in the context of hostile actions during the War of 1812.

An old term meaning financially secure or well-off.

A fort in Canada that was the site of significant military action during the War of 1812.

A fort at the mouth of the Niagara River in Canada, captured by American forces during the War of 1812.

Military constructions or buildings designed for defense in warfare. In this chapter, it refers to the ancient defensive structures found in Orleans County, which were likely used by the earlier inhabitants of the region.

A workshop or factory where metal is melted and cast into shapes, such as tools, machinery parts, or decorative items. Foundries were critical for the industrial development of early towns.

A type of light shotgun used primarily for hunting birds but also effective for small game and, at times, larger animals like deer. It was a common tool among settlers for providing food.

A house built with a wooden frame structure, as opposed to log houses. Framed houses were more durable and considered a step up in comfort and quality for early settlers.

Landowners who held their land outright, rather than leasing it. In early American towns, certain public offices required the holder to be a freeholder.

A community founded by Gideon Freeman in the town of Gaines, named after him. This area was known for its early agricultural development, although it faced severe hardships, such as the crop failure in 1816.

A fraternal organization with roots in the medieval stonemasons’ guilds. Freemasonry was widespread in early America and played a significant role in social and civic life.

A person who forms their own opinions rather than accepting those commonly accepted or promoted by others. This term often describes someone who challenges societal norms or traditional beliefs.

A geographical dictionary or directory that provides detailed information about places, typically including statistics and descriptions of their history. French’s Gazetteer would have been a key reference work for understanding New York State’s geography and history at the time.

A basic cooking utensil with a long handle, used for frying food over an open fire. The long handle allowed the cook to hold the pan over the fire without getting too close to the heat.

In this context, a furnace is a facility used for smelting or casting metal. Early furnaces were essential for producing tools, implements, and machinery, such as plows.

The first incorporated literary institution in Orleans County, established in 182It initially thrived but declined after rival academies were established in nearby towns.

A military term for a full assembly of troops, often for training or inspection, which settlers were required to attend.

A military campaign led by General John Sullivan in 1779 during the American Revolutionary War. The campaign targeted the Iroquois Confederacy, who had sided with the British, and involved burning their villages and crops to weaken their support for the British forces.

A United States Army general who played a major role in the War of 1812, the Mexican-American War, and the early stages of the American Civil War. He was also involved in maintaining peace during the Patriot War.

Regions in Western New York where the Seneca tribe had their villages. These areas were part of the broader territory traditionally occupied by the Seneca people.

A county in Western New York. It was part of the territory inhabited by the Seneca tribe, and they had their villages there.

A region in Western New York that was a popular destination for settlers moving westward in the early 19th century. It was known for its fertile land and opportunities for farming and settlement.

A fertile agricultural area in the Genesee River Valley, New York. It was known for its productive farmland and was a source of food for settlers.

A major river in Western New York that served as a key geographical and cultural boundary during the early settlement of the region. It was central to the history and development of the Genesee Country and the Holland Purchase.

A region in central New York State where American General Philip Schuyler met with Iroquois leaders during the Revolutionary War to negotiate neutrality. Schuyler met some Six Nations chiefs in council at German Flats to promise protection of Oneida lands against encroaching settlers. He pledged that the United States would honor the boundary line established by the 1768 Treaty of Fort Stanwix. In return, the attending chiefs renewed a friendly neutrality that endorsed Schuyler’s military plans to defend the valley.

A prominent figure in Orleans County history, known for his service as a Congressman, State Senator, and County Judge. His contributions to law and governance in the area were significant.

A unit of liquid measure, equal to one-fourth of a pint. In the context of this text, it refers to the amount of whiskey rationed to workers each day.

A parcel of land, often reserved by land companies like the Holland Land Company, to support religious institutions and encourage settlement in a new area. The distribution of these lands was often contentious and managed carefully by company agents like Joseph Ellicott.

A reference to a major city, used here to describe Batavia as the expected commercial hub of the Holland Purchase, an area in Western New York.

A naturally elevated area composed of gravel. The Ridge Road, an important highway in Orleans County, was built along such a ridge, which extended from the Genesee River to the Niagara River.

A significant solar eclipse that occurred on June 16, 1806 It was observed by Asa Sanford and others, and it caused a temporary darkening of the sky.

Another term for the American Civil War (1861–1865).

This refers to the body of knowledge, stories, myths, and literary works from ancient Greece and Rome. The use of lore suggests not just the languages but also the cultural and historical knowledge that comes with studying these classical civilizations.

Refers to the region of the Green Mountains in Vermont and the people from that area. The term is often associated with hardy, resilient individuals,

reflecting the rugged terrain and self-reliant culture of the region.

A tool used for sharpening or grinding, typically in the context of agricultural or manual labor.

Grain that has been ground into flour or meal. The term can also refer to the quantity of grain taken to a mill for grinding.

A mill where grains such as wheat, corn, or rye are ground into flour. Gristmills were essential in early American communities as they provided a means for settlers to process their crops into usable food products.

A term used to describe a reduced food allowance, often implemented during times of scarcity to make limited supplies last longer.